Sep

16

GLASS—AMERICAN, GLASS—ENGLISH, IRISH AND SCOTTISH, GLASS—COLOURED AND OPAQUE, ICONS, JEWELLERY

September 16, 2009 | Leave a Comment

GLASS—AMERICAN

Belknap, E. McC. Milk Glass. New York, 1949

Chipman, F. W. The Romance of Old Sandwich Glass. New York, 1952 Koch, R. Tiffany Coloured Glass. 1964 (1966)

Lee, Ruth W. Early American Pressed Glass. New York, 1946 McKearin, G. S. and H. American Glass. New York, 1941; Two Hundred

Years of American Blown Glass. New York, 1949 Revi, A. C. American Pressed Glass. New York, 1964 Watkins, L. W. American Glass and Glass Making. New York, 1950

GLASS—ENGLISH, IRISH AND SCOTTISH—ice also Paperweights Angus-Butterworth, L. M. British Table and Ornamental Glass. 1956 Ash, D. How to Identify English Drinking Glasses and Decanters (1680-1830). 1961

Barrington-Hayncs, E. Glass Through the Ages. 1948 Bate, P. English Table Glass. 1905 (1913) Bedford, J. English Crystal Glass. 1966

Bles, J. Rare English Glasses of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.

1920; European Glass. 1926 Buckley, F. The Glass Trade in England in the Seventeenth Century. 1914;

History of Old English Glass. 1925 Crompton, S. (Ed.) English Glass. 1967

Davis, D. The ‘Country Life’ Book of Glass. 1967; English and Irish Antique

Glass. 1965 Dillon, E. History of Glass. 1907

Elville, E. M. The Collector’s Dictionary of Glass. 1961 (1967); English

Table Glass. 1951; English and Irish Cut Glass (1750-1960). 1953 Fleming, J. A. Scottish and Jacobite Glass. Glasgow, 1938 Francis, G. R. Old English Drinking Glasses. 1926 Goddcn, G. A. Antique China and Glass under

Ј5. 1966 Guttey, D. R. From Broad Glass to Cut Crystal. 1956 Hartshornc, A. Old English Glasses. London and New York, 1897 Haynes, E. B. Glass Through the Ages. 1948 (1959) Honey, W. B. English Glass. 1946

Hughes, G. B. Table Glass in England, Scotland and Ireland from the Sixteenth Century to 1820. 1956; English Glass for the Collector. 1958 (1967) Kampfer, F. and Beyer, K. G. Glass: A World History. 1967 Lewis, J. S.

Old Glass and How to Collect It. 1948 Lloyd, W. Investing in Georgian Glass. 1969 Marson, P. Glass. 1918

Pcllatt, A. Glass Manufactures. 1821; Curiosities of Glass-making. 1849

(Reprint 1969) Robertson, R. A. Chats on Old Glass. 1954 Ruggles-Brisc, S. Sealed Bottles. London and New York, 1949 Savage, G. Glass. 1965 Stanmus, G. Old Irish Glass. 1920

Thorpe, W. A. A History of English and Irish Glass. 2 vols. 1929 (1969);

English Glass. 1935 (1968) Wakefield, Hugh. Nineteenth-Century British Glass. 1961 Warren, P. Irish Glass. 1970 Wcstropp, M. S. D. Irish Glass. 1920 Whistler, L. Engraved Glass. 1958

Wilkinson, O. N. Old Glass: Manufacture, Style, Uses. 1968 Wilkinson, R. The Hallmarks of Antique Glass. 1969

hooks  for reading and reference

Wills, Geoffrey. The ‘Country Life’ Pocket Book of Glass. 1966 Winbolt, S. E. Wealden Glass. 1933 Yoxall, J. H. Collecting Old Glass. 1966

GLASS—COLOURED AND OPAQUE

Amic, Y. French Opaline Glasses of the Nineteenth Century. 1952 Beard, G. A. Nineteenth-Century Cameo Glass. New|x>rt, 1955 Bedford, J. Bristol and other Coloured Glass. 1964 Belknap, E. McC. Milk Glass. New York,

1949 Charleston, R. J. English Opaque—White Glass. 1962 Davis, D. C, and Middlemas, K. Coloured Glass. 1968

GLASS PICTURES

Clarke, H. G. The History oj Old English Glass Pictures jrom 1690-1810. 1928

HORSE BRASSES

llartlirld. G. Horse Brasses. London, New York, and Toronto, 1965 Hughes, G. B. Horse Brasses. 1956 (1962)

ICONS

Irimie, C. Roumanian Icons on Glass. 1969 Kondokov, N. P. The Russian Icon. 1927 Onasch, K., revised by T. Rice. Icons. 1964 Papageorgiou, A. Icons in Cyprus. 1969 Rice, T. Russian Icons. 1947 (1963) Skrobuche, H.

Icons. 1964

Weitzmann, K. Icons from South-Eastern Europe and Sinai. 1968 IRONWORK

Eras, V. M. Locks and Keys throughout the Ages. 1957

Gardner, J. S. English Ironwork of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. 1911

Harris, J. English Decorative Ironwork from Contemporary Source Books, 1693-1836. 1960

Lindsay, J. S. An Anatomy of English Wrought Iron, 1000-1800. 1964; Iron

and Brass Implements of the English House. 1964 Lister, R. Decorative Wrought Ironwork in Great Britain. 1956 (1960) Shulfney, L. A. The English Fireplace. 1920 Taylor, S. Opercular London Coal Plates. 1966

Young, W. A. Old English Pattern Books of the Metal Trades. 1913 IVORY

Beibeder, O. Ivory. 1965

Longhurst, M. H. History of English Ivories. 1926 Maskall, A. Ivories. 1905 Natanson, J. Early Christian Ivories. 1953 Williamson, G. C. The Book of Ivory. 1938 Wills, G. Ivory. 1968

JADE

Bedford, J. Jade and other Hardstone Carvings. 1969

Hansford, S. H. Chinese Carved Jades. 1968

Jenyns, S. Chinese Archaic Jades in the British Museum. 1951

Lawfer, B. Jade. Chicago, 1912

Luzzato-Bilitz, D. Antique Jade. 1969

Nott, S. G. Chines* Jadt through the Ages. 1936 (1962); Chinese Jade, Its

Characteristics, Decoration, Folklore and Symbolism. 1963 Palmer, J. P. Jade. 1967

Pope-Hennessy, U. Early Chinese Jades. 1923; A Jade Miscellany. 1946 Savage, G. Chinese Jade. 1964 Wills, G.Jade. 1964 Zara, L. Jade. 1969

JAPANESE PRINTS

Binyon, L. Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Woodcuts in the British

Museum. 1916 Binyon, L. Painting in the Far East 1934

Binyon, L. and Sexton, J. J. Japanese Colour Prints. 1923; Revised 1960 Blunt, W. Japanese Colour Prints from Harunobu to Utamaro. 1952 Boiler, W. Masterpieces of the Japanese Woodcut. 1958 Ficke, A. C. Chats on

Japanese Prints. 1915

Hillicr, J. Japanese Drawings, 17th-l9th Century. 1966; Japanese Masters of the Colour Print. 1954; Japanese Prints, Drawings and Paintings (Kegan Paul Catalogue) 1967

Modanslia. Library of Japanese Art. Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo. First English edtn. 1955

Lane, R. Masters of the Japanese Print. New York, 1962

Mulirner, J. Japanese /’;.;;/, from the Early Masters to the Pic sent Day.

Rutland, Vermont, 1963 Munsterberg, H. The Landscape Painting of China and Japan. Tokyo, 1955

JAPANNED WARES

John, W. D. English Decorated Trays (1550-1850). 1964; Pontypool and

Usk Japanned Wares. 1965 Stalker, J. A Treatise on Japanning and Varnishing. 1688 (1962)

JEWELLERY—sec also Enamel

Bainbridge, H. C. Fabergl, Goldsmith and Jeweller to the Russian Imperial

Court. 1949 (1967) Bedford, J. Jewellery. 1964 i’ nil.i, K. Ornament and Jewellery. 1967

Bradford, E. English Victorian Jewellery. 1959 (1967); Four Centuries of

European Jewellery. 1953 (1967) Burgess, F. W. Antique Jewellery and Trinkets. 1919 Castcllani, A. Antique Jewellery and its Revival. 1862 Curran, M. Collecting Jewellery. 1963; Jewels and Gems. 1961 Emanuel, H.

Diamonds and Precious Stones. 1865 Evans, J. A History of Jewellery 1100-1870. 1953 (1970) Eylcs, W. C. The Book of Opals, 1964 Falkincr, R. Investing in Antique Jewellery. 1968

Flower, M. Victorian Jewellery. 1951; (Revised 1967); Jewellery, 1837-1901. 1968

Fregnac, C. Jewellery. 1965 Jones, W. Finger Ring Lore. 1898 Hinks, P. Jewellery. 1969

Hughes, T. and B. English Painted Enamels. 1951 King, C. W. Antiiui Gems and Rings. 1872

Kunz, G. F. The Book of the Pearl. 1908 Lccchman, F. The Opal Book. 1961

Lewis, M. D. S. Antique Paste Jewellery. 1969 Oved, S. The Book of Necklaces. 1953 Prosser, W. Birmingham Inventions. 1881

Rogers, F. and Beard, A. Five Thousand Years of Gems and Jewellery. 1947

Ryley, A. B. Old Paste. 1913

Snowman, K. The Art of Carl Fabergi. 1954

Steingraber, E. Antique Jewellery: Its History in Europe from 800 to 1900. 1957

Vilimkova, M. and Darbois, D. Egyptian Jewellery. 1969 Wigley, T. B. The Art of the Goldsmith and Jeweller. 1898 Wright, J. S. The Jewellery and Gilt Toy Trades. 1866

KEYS—see Locks and Keys

LACE

Caplin, J. The Lace Book. 1932

Head, R. E. The Lace and Embroidery Collector: A Guide to Collectors of

Old iMce, Samplers, etc. 1921 Hoarc, K. The Art of Tatting. 1910 Jackson, F. N. A History of Hand-made Lace. 1928 Jourdain, M. Old Lace. 1908 Moore, N. H. The iMce Book. 1908 Palliser, B. History of Lace. 1875 Pollen,

J. H. Seven Centuries of Old Lace. 1928 Ricci, E. Old Italian Lace : 2 vols. 1913 Wardte, P. Victorian Lace. 1968

LACQUER

Bedford, J. Chinese and Japanese Lacquer. 1969 Boyer, M. Japanese Export Lacquers (1600-1800). 1959 Herberts, K. Oriental Lacquer. 1962 Koizumi, G. Lacquer Work. 1923

Strange, E. F. Catalogue of Chinese Lacquer in the Victoria and Albert Museum. 1925; Chinese Lacquer. 1926

LEADWORK

Weaver, L. English Leadwork. 1909 LEATHERWORK

Waterer, J. W. Leatlier Craftsmanship. 1968 LOCKS AND KEYS

Eras, V. M. Locks and Keys Throughout the Ages. 1957 MAPS AND GLOBES

Bagrow, L. History of Cartography. English Edition, 1964

Baynton-Williams, R. Investing in Old Maps. 1969

Crone, G. R. Maps and Their Makers. Second edtn. 1962

Darlington, I. and Howgego, G. Printed Maps of London, c. 1553-1830. 1964

Fite, D. E. and Freeman, E. The Book of Old Maps. New York, 1965

Fordham, H. G. The Road Books and Itineraries of Great Britain, 1570-1850.

1924; John Cary: Engraver, Map, Chart and Print-Seller, and Globe

Maker, 1754-1835. 1925 Lee, R. J. English County Maps. 1953

THE  IllIYINO  ANTIQUES  REFERENCE BOOK

Lister, R. How to Identify Old Maps and Globes. 1965; Antique Maps and

their Cartographers. 1970 Lynham, E. British Maps and Map-Makers. 1944; Ornamental Writing and

Symbols on Maps, 1250-1800. 1945 Quixlcy, R. C. E. Antique Maps of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. 1966 Radford, P. J. Antique Maps. Portsmouth, England, 1965 Robinson, A. H. W. Marine Cartography in Britain.

1962

Skclton, R. A. Decorative Printed Maps of the Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries. (Based on a book compiled in 1922 by A. L. Humphreys and rewritten by R. A. Skelton in 1952. It is well documented with a useful

bibliography to each chapter.) Reprinted 1967

Stevenson, E. L. Terrestrial and Celestial Globes. 2 vols. Yale, 1921

Taylor, E. G. R. Tudor Geography, 1485-1583. 1935; Late Tudor and Early Stuart Geography, 1583-1650. 1934

Toolcy, R. V. Maps and Mapmakers. 1962

MARITIME ANTIQUES

Dow, G. F. Whale Ships and Whaling During Three Centuries. Salem, Mass., 1935

Frerc-Gook, G. The Decorative Arts of the Mariner. 1966 MATCHBOX LABELS

Rendall, J. Matchbox labels. Newton Abbot, 1968 MEDALS

Cole, H. H. Coronation and Commemorative Medals. Aldershot, 1953

Dorling, H. T. Ribbons and Medals. 1946

Gordon, L. L. British Battles and Medals. Aldershot, 1962

Hieronymusscn, P. Orders, Medals and Decorations of Britain and Europe.

First English edtn. London, 1967 Irwin, D. H. War Medals and Decorations, 1588-1898. 1899 Kerr, J. N. Notes on War Medals, 1794-1840. 1948

Laftin, J. British Campaign Medals. London, New York, Toronto, 1964 Purvcs, A. A. Collecting Medals and Decorations. 1968

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Jul

26

ANTIQUE OAK FURNITURE

July 26, 2009 | Leave a Comment

The scientific study of old oak furniture is of relatively recent growth. Indeed, it was not until the close of the i 9th century and, more especially, the early years of the loth that the subject showed clear signs of developing a literature of its own.
Even so, the debt to the early pioneers of oak-studies, and to the best modern authorities for their patient checking and counter-checking, is indisputable. Though the day is past when ‘old oak’ was the preserve of a handful of artists and collectors, it is largely due to their initiative that later generations have been enabled to build on the foundations thus laid down. If in what follows the emphasis is mainly on certain aspects of terminology, it may at least assist an average reader to recognize and to avoid some popular errors.
Among such solecisms one does not reckon the ‘Age of Oak’, though that, like other ‘labels’, means more (and less) than it says. That other woods were used in that Age is obvious: but the term is useful as covering furniture and woodwork through the Middle Ages onwards to the experimental period of Charles II and the rise of the ‘Age of Walnut’. Not that oak furniture ceased to be made at the end of the ►7th century; but whereas its milieu had been general, its later setting (before modern times) was mainly of the unmodish, and even the humble, home.
As will be seen, an oak collector’s vocabulary is a blend of words as used by carpenters, joiners, turners and architects, together with some recovered from documentary sources, and others truly or falsely traditional. The following brief glossary’s main concentration is on English usage, though one or two alien or post-oak terms are mentioned in passing.

GLOSSARY
Ambry (Aumbry, Almery; Fr. Armoire) - enclosed compartment or recess in a wall or in a piece of furniture, the original sense of the term having been usurped by CUPBOARD, which originally had a different connotation. `Cuppbordes, wyth ambries’ are mentioned in inventories of Henry VIII’s furniture. Today AUMBRY, etc, is principally used architecturally and ecclesiastically, as of the doored compartments or recesses for the Reservation of the Blessed Sacrament, this usage perpetuating the original sense. The French form ARMOIRE is often applied to large PRESSES or
PRESS-CUPBOARDS.
Apron-work: prolongation downwards, beyond what is essential to construction, of the lower edge of a member, such as the shaped lower edge of the front of certain BOARDED CHESTS, or the lower frontal frame-work, below the drawers, of certain DRESSERS. In such cases an APRON is purely ornamental; in others, e.g. the seating Of CLOSE-CHAIRS, its purpose is that of concealment.
Ark: term frequently encountered in medieval inventories, seemingly meaning (a) a CHEST with a coped or gabled lid; (b) perhaps a structure resembling a RELIQUARY (Fr. CHASSE), as exemplified by the 16th-century ALMERY in Coity Church, Glamorganshire.
Arming Chest: CHEST for the housing of armours and weapons. ARMING CHESTS might be fitted with compartments of varying size to accommodate breast-plate, etc (see Chest). (In navigation an ARMING BOX contains tallow for the `lead’.)
Barguefio (or Varguefio): Spanish cabinet with fall-front enclosing drawers and often mounted on a stand. Mixed materials are found.
Barley-sugar: see Twist-turning.
Bedstead: so far as practical collecting is concerned main basic types are the BOX- (or enclosed) BEDSTEAD, WAINSCOT- (including bedsteads panelled at head and foot), POST- (with two or four posts supporting the TESTER), STUMP- (or low type), and the TRUCKLE- or TRUNDLE- (With wooden wheels at base of uprights). These are not hard-and-fast definitions; one type may well overlap another (e.g. Box and WAINSCOT). Parts Of BEDSTEADS have been re-used for other purposes of a decorative nature, such as OVER-MANTELS.
Bench: a long seat, backed or backless, fitted or movable (see Form, Settle, Table-bench).
Bible-box: popular term for a variety of BOX, generally of small size. That some such boxes were used to hold the family Bible, or average meagre domestic library, is probable, though they doubtless served other purposes. LACE-BOXES enter this category.
Book-case: BOOKCASES, either fitted or, in some cases, contained in other furniture, were known medievally, but the domestic BOOKCASE mainly derives from the period of
Charles II (1660-85).
Boys and Crowns: old term for a type of carved ornament on the CRESTING of late 17th- and quite early 18th-century CHAIRS, DAY-BEDS, etc (see under Restoration). The motif, a CROWN, usually, though not necessarily, arched, supported by two flying or sprawling naked Boys, derives ultimately from the flying pulli frequently found in RENAISSANCE design. In England, the idea was familiar long before it achieved (temp. Charles II) a vogue on chair-backs.
Buffet: term variously applied to open, dourless structures, of more than one tier (see also Court Cupboard, Livery Cupboard).
Carolean: term of convenience strictly applicable to pieces made in the reign of Charles I (1625-49), those made under Charles II (1660-85) usually being dissociated. Actually the CAROLEAN style is as much an extension of the JACOBEAN as the latter was of the later ELIZABETHAN.
Caryatid: upright carved in semblance of a human figure or, more frequently, a demi-figure on a terminal base. Strictly, CARYATID implies a female, ATLANTA or ATLAS FIGURE a male figure, though CARYATID is used for either. The term derives from the legend of the women of Carya, enslaved and immured for their betrayal of the Greeks to the Persians. ATLANTA refers to the myth Of ATLAS upholding the heavens.
Casson: an Italian term for CHEST, COFFER, or chest of coffer-like construction, including magnificent DOWER-CHESTS, many of them elaborately gessoed, painted, gilt, or otherwise enriched.
Chair: in its old sense CHAIR meant, as like as not, an -CHAIR, what is now called a SINGLE- or SIDE-CHAIR being
ARM
a BACK-STOOL (stool with a batik). To what extent the CHAIR originated from such box-forms as the CHEST is suggested by early surviving examples of box-like structure. Development from the WAINSCOT CHAIR to the open-framed variety with panelled back belongs in general to the 16th century. Folding or RACK-CHAIRS and X-CHAIRS (so called from their shape) have also a long history. Certain 16th-century chairs with narrow backs and widely, splayed arms are so-called
CAQUETEUSE or CAQUETOIRE. The so-called FARTHINGALE
CHAIR (a term freely applied to pieces mostly of the earlier 17th century) has its back-support raised clear of the seat. Upholstery (not unknown earlier) had arrived, seats and back-pads being covered in velvet or in ‘Turkey-work’. Leather was used, especially on CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS, some of which date from the Interregnum, though the type endured until relatively late in the 17th century. LEATHER or RUSSIA CHAIR are old terms for such items. About the middle of the 17th century are found what are often termed `MORTUARY’ CHAIRS, a term of doubtful origin for chairs with a small moustachioed and bearded head (supposedly allusive to King Charles I) in the centre of the shaped and scrolled back-rails. Similar chairs occur without the masks, and the type is a variation Of YORKSHIRE or DERBYSHIRE CHAIR, Of undefined geographical distribution.

CAME-CHAIRS achieved main popularity in the second half of the 17th century, their backs and seats being caned. Scrolling, curlicues, BOYS AND CROWNS, etc, were favoured as carved ornament. Backs lengthen, assuming the form of a narrow panel or centre (often caned or stuffed) flanked by uprights. Already had been reached the period Of BARLEY-SUGAR TURNING (see Twist).
CORNER-CHAIRS, some of triangular formation, and sundry related types, were already in being. A later variety has the seat disposed diagonally to the low, rounded back. ELBOW-
CHAIR and ROUNDABOUT-CHAIR are synonyms in use. An allied type is the CIRCULAR CHAIR (with circular seat), often Dutch, and known as BURGOMASTER or (again) ROUNDABOUT-CHAIR, such terms being jargon. THROWN-CHAIRS of various
shapes, with much turnery, have been often assigned to the 16th century, though many are certainly later. Though scarcely belonging to the Age of Oak, the WINDSOR CHAIR may have owed something to older types. The basic characteristic of WINDSOR is not the bow- or hoop-back, but the detail that back and under-framing are all mortised into the wooden seat, itself frequently saddle-shaped and ‘dished’, but sometimes circular, etc. The BOW-BACK type (late 18th century and later), preceded by the COMB- or FAN-BACK (early 18th century and later), was itself followed by other formations on more or less ‘Regency’ lines. Types are many with much overlapping; woods are mixed. SCOLE or
MENDLESHAM CHAIRS are East Anglian types on WINDSOR lines. YORKSHIRE and LANCASHIRE WINDSORS usually show
`frilly’ splats and developed turnery, but the type was not confined to the North of England. In America Windsors were made from the early 18th century, and included some fine types. LANCASHIRE CHAIR is also applied to an extensively made type Of BOBBIN-BACK, much favoured in the 18th and early i9th centuries, but, here again, as with
YORKSHIRE and DERBYSHIRE CHAIRS in general, the geo-
graphical location has been overstressed (see Close-chair and -stool; also Restoration).

bevelled   Pd e as when the sharp edges of a Chamfer:edge,
beam are bevelled off. A DUST CHAMFER (i.e. to throw off dust) is a smooth bevel at the lower edge of framework of a panel, the other edges being moulded, or part moulded and part of rectangular cut. Of STOP CHAMFER there is no better simple definition than Walter Rose’s in The Village Carpenter: where slope finishes and square begins’ [to arise].
Chest (see also Coffer) : one primitive form of CHEST is the DUG-OUT or TRUNK, its interior gouged in the solid. Some DUG-ouTs are of considerable antiquity; others may be of more recent date than their appearance suggests. In name and rounded lid the TRAVELLING TRUNK, as still known, recalls the ancient use of a tree-trunk. FRAMED CHESTS are also ancient, the earliest surviving medieval examples being formed of great planks so disposed as to present an almost or wholly flush surface at front and back. PANELLED CHESTS were being made in the 15th century, later becoming very popular. The earlier `flush’ construction was, however, to some extent perpetuated until a very late period in the BOARDED CHEST, made entirely of boards, including the ends which also form the uprights (cp. Wainscot). Unusually long examples are sometimes, but not necessarily correctly, called RAPIER CHESTS. The validity of the term is uncertain. Popularly called ‘NON(E)SUCH’ CHESTS, mainly of the latter part of the 16th century, are inlaid with formalized architectural designs, thought possibly to represent the Palace of Nonsuch, or Nonesuch, at Ewell, Surrey. Such architectural motifs are, however, exploitations of a Renaissance design favoured on the Continent, though a possible affinity exists between them and the crowded towns in GOTHIC art. MULE-CHEST (implying a hybrid) is collectors’ jargon of no validity
fora CHEST-with-DRAWERS.
Chest-of-drawers: this derives in name, and to a considerable extent in principle, from the CHEST, a link being the CHEST-WITH-DRAWERS, with a single range of drawers beneath the box. Such pieces were in being by the latter part of the 16th century, a gradual tendency to increase the drawer-space at the expense of the box resulting in the CHEST-OF-DRAWERS. At the same time various structures enclosing a quantity of drawers were also in being, on the Continent and in England, as with the ‘new cubborde of boxes’ made by Lawrence Abelle in 1595 for Stratford-upon-Avon or the `cubborde with drawing boxes’ of the Unton Inventory, 1596. ‘Nest of boxes’ is another old term (see also Barguefto, Writing-cabinet).
Child’s Furniture: mostly small-scale furniture for children’s usage, distinct from TOY FURNITURE. Some confusion exists between TABLES and the SQUARE JOINED STOOL (with unsplayed legs) which certainly existed as such. CHAIRS follow full-scale design, or are HIGH-CHAIR pattern, some of enclosed or WAINSCOT fashion, others elevated on tall legs. A framework on wheels to support a toddler has been given various names, e.g. BABY-CAGE or GO-CART.
Chip-carving: lightly cut (’chipped’) surface ornament, mostly of formal character and including WHORLS, ROUNDELS, etc. Such work, known medievally, persisted on items of much later date.
Close-chairs and Close- or Night-stools: were sometimes chair-shaped, sometimes rectangular or drum-shaped boxes (possibly covered and padded), and sometimes rectangular boxes on legs. A type Of JOINED STOOL with a box-top was so usable, though it does not follow that all sTooLs with this feature were for sanitary usage.
Cock’s Head: twin-plate hinge of curvilinear shape, the finials formed (more or less) as a cock’s head. Frequently found on woodwork of the late 16th and first half of the 17th century.
Coffer: term freely confused with CHEST. In strict definition a COFFER was a CHEST or BOX covered in leather or some other material and banded with metalwork, but it seems likely that the term was not always precisely used. It may not be wrong to class as COFFERS various stoutly built and/or heavily ironed STRONG-CHESTS and -BoxFs, even though they do not fulfil all the above requirements. TRUSSING COFFERS were furnished with lifting rings and shackles or other devices for transportation; but CHESTS and COFFERS not intended for transport might be chained to the wall for security.
Counter: HUTCH-like structure, sometimes approximating to a TABLE with an under-compartment. The name (surviving in SHOP-COUNTER, etc) derives from the top being employed for reckoning accounts with COUNTERS or JFTTONS disposed on a marked scale. When not so used the COUNTER was available for a variety of other purposes.
Cradle: child’s sleeping cot, most general form being a low-built, trough-like or box-like structure, with or without a hooded end, on rockers, but the CRADLE slung between uprights was also known in the Age of Oak (e.g. the so-called ‘Cradle of Henry V’, later than his time, in the London Museum).
Credence: side-table as used ecclesiastically for the Elements prior to Consecration, and for the Cruets, etc. therewith associated. Such tables were sometimes of Hutch-like formation, and the term CREDENCE has been loosely extended to cover other furniture of more or less similar construction.
Cresting: shaped and sometimes perforated ornament on the top of a structure, as in the CRESTING of a CHAIR.
Cromwellian: term of convenience applied to English furniture of austere character, actually or supposedly made about the time of the Commonwealth or Interregnum (1649-60), but also used loosely of related types.
Cupboard: originally CUP-BOARD, a species Of SIDEBOARD for the display and service of plate, etc, and having no essential connection with enclosed and doored structures. When equipped with such features, these might be noted (see Ambry). The modern sense of CUPBOARD, as an enclosed structure, is a long-standing usurpation, such items being mostly descended from the PRESS, PRESS-CUPBOARD, etc. LIVER-CUPBOARD (a much-abused term from Fr. Livrer, to deliver) was a doorless structure, as is clearly stated in the Hengrave Hall contracts, 1537-8• That it was distinguished from the COURT CUPBOARD is shown by such an entry as ‘ij court cubbordes, and one liver-ye cubborde’, in Unton Inventory, 1596 (’Liverie table’ is also listed). COURT cup-BOARD was likewise an open structure, or with a small enclosed compartment in the upper part. The tendency to compartment such furniture eventually resulted in enclosed pieces of similar outline being called COURT CUPBOARD, though PRESS CUPBOARD is preferable. Welsh varieties of the
PRESS CUPBOARD are the CWPWRDD DEUDDARN (two-tiered) and the CWPWRDD TRIDARN (three-tiered, the top stage often more or less open). DOLE-CUPBOARD strictly applies to hanging or other structures open-shelved, or doored and railed, used in the charitable dispensation of bread, etc, in churches and other institutions. The term is often wrongly applied to
FOOD-CUPBOARD, or, better, FOOD-HUTCH. SPICE-CUPBOARD is
a hanging ‘cupboard), usually ofsmall dimensions, internally fitted with shelves or compartments and drawers, and fronted with a door. Doubtless many were used to hold spices, herbs and medicaments, though they could have served various purposes. CORNER CUPBOARD is a triangular structure, doored or open, independent or fitted, and normally furnished with shelving.
Day-bed: known in England from the 16th century, though authentic examples are mostly of much later date. The original form approximated to a STUMP-BED with a sloped back at one end. In the period of Charles II, and later, DAY-BEDS were caned, their frames often being elaborately carved, quite likely en suite with CANE CHAIRS.
Desk: chiefly, a box with sloped top or lid, for reading or writing. Both standard and smaller DESKS were known medievally, but the average English domestic desk of the 16th and 17th centuries was standless. Such were sometimes
known by the useful term DESK-BOX. DESKS WITH STANDS were
being made, however, in the second half of the 17th century, if not earlier (see Writing-cabinet).
Deuddarn: see Cupboard.
Dowel: headless pin used in construction. Though, architecturally, DOWELS may be of other materials, wood is understood when speaking of furniture. TRENAIL (i.e. TREENAIL) is another term for a wooden DOWEL (see Nail).
Drawer: box in a framework from which it can be drawn. In some simple or traditional constructions DRAWERS merely rest on the framework, but a typical feature of the late 16th to 17th century was a groove on each side of a DRAWER, accommodating projecting RUNNERS on the framework. This gave way, in later furniture, to runner-strips at the base of the DRAWER itself, and the encasing of the interior framing with DUSTBOARDS.
Dresser: on which food was dressed; a species Of SIDEBOARD with or without a superimposed `back’; also for service of food, and/or storage of plates, dishes, etc. Some backless DRESSERS are closely allied to the SIDE-TABLE. DRESSERS are wontedly furnished with storage accommodation (such as AMBRIES, shelving, DRAWERS, etc, or combinations of such). WELSH DRESSER is used of local varieties of the tall-back DRESSER found virtually everywhere. NORTH WALES and SOUTH WALES types are differentiated.
Egg-and-Tongue (Egg-and-Dart): Repeat ornament of alternated ovolo and dart-like motifs; as much other ornament of classical origin, transmitted through RENAISSANCE channels.
Elizabethan: term of convenience, strictly applicable to furniture, etc, made in the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603), though loosely used of pieces of later date displaying Elizabethan characteristics. The reign was long; just as EARLY ELIZABETHAN furniture shows influences from previous reigns, SO LATE ELIZABETHAN merges easily into JACOBEAN.
Fake or Forgery: furniture (or other objects) made or assembled in simulation of authentic antiquities, with deceptive intent. Fakes are of several kinds, of which a few may be listed: (a) the wholly modern fake, though quite possibly made of old wood; (b) the fake incorporating old and in themselves authentic parts; (c) the `carved-up’ fake, as, for instance, a plain chest (itself antique) with modern carving added; (d) the ‘married’ piece, of which all, or considerable portions, may be authentic, but which has been `made-up’ from more than one source. Difficult of classification are certain items which have been liberally restored (see Restoration), each case demanding judgement on its own merits. Though over-restoration is reprehensible, cases occur of pieces reconditioned with innocent intent. An ordinary repair to a genuine antique need not disqualify it. At the same time, a watchful eye should be kept for an old faking trick of inserting an obvious ‘repair’ for the sole purpose of making the rest of a spurious piece look older by contrast.
Fluting: grooving with long hollows (see Scoop and Reeding).
Form: long, backless seat, with any number of supports from two upwards. Of ancient lineage, the FORM is simply a long STOOL. `Longe stoole’ occurs in old inventories.
Glastonbury Chair is collectors’ jargon for a type of chair with X-supports and elbowed arms linking seat and top of back. The name derives from an example at Wells, supposedly associated with the last Abbot of Glastonbury. Examples of like construction have been made or embellished at various, including modern, periods.
Gothic: term comprehensively applied to furniture and woodwork made between the 12th and 13th centuries and the early part of the 16th, when RENAISSANCE features began to intrude. This approximation is very rough, and the question of the SUrvivial of GOTHIC in later work, or its various revivals, is not a subject dealt with here.
Guilloche: band of curvilinear ornament suggesting
entwined ribbons.
Hutch: enclosed structure, often raised on uprights, or an enclosed structure of more than one tier. The name derives from Fr. Huche, a kneading-trough or meal-tub, but the significance Of HUTCH was much wider. FOOD-HUTCH, often confused with DOLE-CUPBOARD, is a name given to a HUTCH with perforated panels.
Inlay: surface ornament formed by insetting separate pieces of differently coloured woods, or bone, ivory, shell, etc, in a recessed ground.
Jacobean: term of convenience usually applicable to furniture made in the reign of James I (1603-25), and perhaps, though unusually, to that ofJames II (1685-8). In general, loosely applied to furniture styles in direct descent from the ELIZABETHAN tradition. It is thus employed of certain types of furniture covering virtually the whole of the 17th century and even later, though from the time of Charles II it is generally restricted to pieces of unmodish or traditional character. JACOBEAN is not now favoured as a descriptive label by scholarly writers, except in cases of uncertain dating, preference being given to a more precise system involving such approximations as ‘circa 162o’ or ‘first quarter of the 17th century’, etc.
Jewel: ornament with raised devices distantly suggestive of gem-stones, often combined with systems of REEDING
(q.v.).
Joined: term used in describing furniture made by a joiner.
KnOP: swelling member on an upright, etc; a KNOB. Thus a KNOPPED post.
Linenfold: carved ornament suggested by folded linen, first found late in the 15th century, very popular in the first half of the 16th, and continuing in diminishing quantity for many years.
Attempts to distinguish ‘true’ (realistic) from ‘mock’ (formalized) LINENFOLD need not be taken too seriously. Some of the single-fold types (often cusped and foliated) have been differentiated as PARCHEMIN (Fr.), from a supposed resemblance to cut parchment. Apart from its obvious decorativeness, no satisfactory explanation of the origin of LINENFOLD has been adduced. An attractive suggestion is that it was inspired by the Veil of the Chalice, though it could have arisen in other ways.
Lock-plate (or Scutcheon): front-plate of a lock, or the plate protecting a key-hole.
Lunette Ornament: formal carving composed of a horizontal system of semicircles, variously filled and embellished, frequently disposed in a repeat-band.
Marquetry: Fr. Marqueterie from Marqueler, to spot, speckle, variegate. Ornamental VENEER of wood or other materials, the ornament cut in whole or repeat patterns instead (as with INLAY as such) of being built up with independent solid shapes in separately hollowed recesses.
Melon-Bulb: jargon and comparatively modern term for the swollen member on legs or posts of furniture. An exaggeration of the KNOP, it attained full development in the ELIZABETHAN period, thereafter dwindling away.
Nfisericord: in ecclesiastical woodwork, bracket on underside of hinged seat of a stall, to support an occupant when nominally standing during certain offices. From a `monastic’ usage of L. Misericordia (pity, compassion), in sense of ‘an indulgence or relaxation of the rule’ (O.E.D.). MISERERE is an incorrect alternative.
Moulding: shaped member, such as used to enclose panels; or the shaped edge of a lid, cornice, etc.
Muntin: upright (other than an outer-most upright) connecting the upper and lower stretchers of a framework.

An instance is the BEARER between the doors of the lower stage of a PRESS-CUPBOARD; but the number Of MUNTINS 0-    Stile). on the nature of the structure. (See also    )
Nail: a popular notion that iron NAILS are never found in antique furniture construction is fallacious. In fact, metal NAILS have been known for centuries, though the use of the wooden DOWEL (q.v.) must not be minimized by implication. Old hand-made NAILS are very different from the modern, mass-produced variety; but the manufacture of hand-made NAILS (and SCREWS) has been revived.
Panel: compartment usually rectangular, and sunk or raised from the surface of its framework. PANEL is the filling of such framework, whereas PANELLING refers to the framework and its filling (see Wainscot).
Parquetry (Fr. Parquetene, from Parqueter to inlay) : a form of decorative VENEER - e.g. ‘OYSTER-SHELL’ - or INLAY.
Patina (and Colour): of furniture and woodwork, PATINA is the undisturbed surface, heightened by centuries of polishing and usage. Contrary to popular belief, some old oak furniture shows clear signs of having been originally varnished; some was also polychromed. PATINATION and COLOUR pose problems to a faker. To some extent they can be simulated, but, when artificially produced, deteriorate (see Fake and Stripping).
Pin-hinge: method of hinging, as found on i3th-century CHESTS, the lid being pinned through the rear STILES and pendent side-rails of the lid.
Poppy- (Popey-) head: decorative finial of a bench- or desk-end, as in ecclesiastical woodwork. Plant and floral forms are numerous; human heads, figures, birds, beasts and other devices are found. Derivation of term is uncertain, one suggestion (rejected by some writers) being from Fr. Poup9e (baby doll), or from Poppet, Puppet.
Press: broadly, a tall, enclosed and doored structure comparable to the modern WARDROBE or HANGING CUP-BOARD. Not to be confused with LINEN-PRESS, in the sense of a framework with a screw-down smoother. (For PRESS-
CUPBOARD see under Cupboard.)
Reeding: similar to FLUTING but with the ornament in
relief.
Renaissance (Fr. for rebirth) - applied to the effects of the revival of learning and embracing the use (often very freely interpreted) of cLAssicAL as opposed to GOTHIC motifs. Originating in Italy in the 15th century, RENAISSANCE design spread throughout Europe, beginning to make itself felt in England in the early 16th century.
Restoration: (I) a proper renewal of a piece by a candid replacement of hopelessly damaged or missing parts; (2) RESTORED is sometimes used to indicate either that a piece has been OVER-RESTORED, or that the extent of its RESTORATION is dubious.
Restoration Furniture: term applied to certain elaborately carved and scrolled CHAIRS, etc, their backs surmounted by crowns or BOYS AND CROWNS. It was said that such pieces recorded the restoration of King Charles II (166o), but many so-called Restoration chairs are now known to date from late in his reign when not from a subsequent period. Such chairs may be of mixed woods, and other than oak.
Romayne Work: old term for Renaissance carving with heads in roundels, scrollwork, vases, etc, some few heads being portraits, but most purely formal. The taste was widespread in Europe, and traditional traces survived in Brittany until quite a late period. The vogue for ROMAYNE WORK in England was under Henry VIII (1509-47), thereafter dwindling.
Roundel: circular ornament enclosing sundry formal devices on medieval and later woodwork; also human heads as in ROMAYNE WORK (see also Whorl).
Scoop Pattern: popular term fora band or other dis-position of FLUTED ornament, gouged in the wood, the flute having a rounded top and, sometimes, base. A motif of RENAISSANCE origin, its use was widespread (see Fluting).
Scutcheon: shield on which are armorial bearings or other devices, and, by extension, sundry, shield-shaped ornaments and fitments (see Lock-plate).
Settle: long, backed seat with boxed base, or on legs, and at each end side-pieces or arms. Fixed or movable, the SETTLE represents a stage preceding the SErrEE, a derivative of the CHAIR. Some quite late SETTLES have one end scrolled like a sofa-head. Some, mostly country-made, SETTLES have a storage PRESS in the back, such being loosely known as
BACON-CUPBOARD.
Sideboard: literally a SIDE-BOARD (as a CUPBOARD was a CUP-BOARD) ; a SIDE-TABLE or other structure convenient for the display and service of plate, foodstuffs, etc, and possibly including storage facilities such as AMBRIES, DRAWERS, etc. A near relative of the DRESSER, and in some cases indistinguishable from such.
Stile: in construction an outermost upright, as a MUNTIN is an inner one.
Stool: small, backless seat. Apart from RACK- or FOLDING STOOLS, the main basic types are TRESTLE and LEGGED. TRESTLE, with two uprights out from the solid, on the same principle as the ends of a BOARDED CHEST, may be included among STOOLS OF WAINSCOT. STOOLS with legs may have three or four supports, and some quite common, and indeed modern, STOOLS of traditional form are of very ancient lineage.
JOINED STOOL (JOINT is a corruption) : is proper to STOOLS made by joinery. The term COFFIN STOOL invariably used by beginners is only correct when the use of JOINED STOOLS as a coffin-bier (as in some old churches) is known. It is incorrect for the domestic article. For CLOSE-STOOL see that section. An old term for a BOX-TOP STOOL was ‘STOOL WITH A LOCK’.

Strapwork: of carving, band of ornament more or less suggestive of plaited straps, often highly formalized; distinct
from GUILLOCRE.
Stretcher: a horizontal member connecting uprights.
Stripping: furniture the old surface of which has been removed and reduced to the wood is said to have been STRIPPED. Though STRIPPING can be properly used, it should never be lightly indulged, as for a supposedly aesthetic advantage (see Patina).
Table: primarily, board forming the top only of such furniture, and by later extension the whole structure. ‘TABLE TRETTEAU’ (table, trestles) in the famous Epitaphe of FrancoisVillon is thus a precise, as well as a poetic, statement. The TRESTLE TABLE is a very old form, an advantage being in its ease of clearance and storage, but TRESTLE-supports are often ponderous. The other main basic type Of TABLE is that supported by a developed framework with a leg at each corner and possibly others along the sides. Of about the early 16th century frame-TABLES constructionally ancestral to later types are in evidence, though authentic examples are all but unprocurable in the market. By the end of the same century TABLES with a developed underframing and fixed legs were usual. The term REFECTORY TABLE is popular jargon, better replaced by LONG TABLE or other suitable description. DINING- or PARLOUR-TABLE is used of less extensive items. DRAWING- or DRAW-TABLE had movable extensions of the top, pushed in below it and drawn when needed. Various kinds Of SIDE-TABLE include what is now called OCCASIONAL TABLE. Some small examples are known, correctly or otherwise, as GAMES- or GAMING TABLES. Certain table-constructions are now reclassified as COUNTER. BILLIARDS TABLES were known in the 16th and 17th century. As apart from the
DRAW-TABLE, the FOLDING, FALLING (or FLAP-) TABLE, its
top with one or more hinged sections, was in more or less general usage by the early 17th century. Various forms include Bow- and BAY-FRONT (also found minus flaps). Flaps were supported by a movable bracket or leg. A development of the principle resulted in the GATE- or GATE-LEG TABLE, with oval or circular top, the developed underframing of legs and stretchers including movable sections or GATES. GATE-TABLES made to fold completely flat are known, but the more usual construction involved a rigid centre-section.
In churches the post-Reformation COMMUNION TABLE, replacing the medieval altar, is essentially similar to the domestic LONG, PARLOUR or SIDE-TABLE previously mentioned, though some examples have special features.
Table-chair, -bench: correct term for the absurdly misnamed MONK’S CHAIR, or -BENCH. CHAIR-TABLE is also used. Convertible CHAIR, the back pivoted to form a table-top when dropped across the uprights. Though the type existed in pre-Reformation times, most surviving examples are so much later in date (say 17th century) as to obviate any monastic association in England.
Trail: undulating band of formalized leaf, berry or floral pattern. Thus VINE-TRAIL.
Trees: old adjectival form of TREE; wooden. Now used of an extensive array of articles, mainly small and of almost any period, such as bowls, Welsh love-spoons, stay-busks, etc, and not excluding furniture.
Tridarn: see Cupboard.
Tudor: the Tudor dynasty reigned from 1485-1603; TUDOR is loosely used of furniture emerging from the GOTHIC or not fully developed as characteristic ELIZABETHAN. The periods of Henry VIII (1509-47) and Elizabeth 05581603) are usually given their own names.
Tulip-ornament: formalized ornament of TULIP-like form, influenced by the TULIP-MANIA in Holland, when huge sums were paid for rare bulbs. On English furniture the vogue for TULIP-ORNAMENT was from about the middle and in the second half of the 17th century.
Twist-turning: form of turning derived from the twisted columns of Romanesque via RENAISSANCE architecture. In England its main vogue on furniture was in the mid[latter half of the 17th century. R. W. Symonds has differentiated the single-roped twist (Dutch-Flemish type) from the English double-roped or BARLEY-SUGAR TWIST.
Veneer: thin sheets of wood applied to surface for decorative effect or to improve appearance of furniture. Though VENEERING arrives in the second half of the 17th century, at the end of the oak period, it is sometimes found as a limited enhancement of pieces which would be classed as oak by collectors.
Wainscot: now mainly used Of WALL-PANELLING, but anciently of wider significance, its derivation from MLG. Wagenschot, perhaps meaning wagon-boarding, referring rather to the planking itself, and thence to a wall-lining as well as to other forms of woodwork. BEDSTEAD, CHAIR, STOOL, etc, are frequently listed as being ‘OF WAINSCOT’. Though this term in some cases implied that their construction involved a noticeable amount of panelled work, furniture stoutly built of slabs or planks of wood, was perhaps ‘OF WAINSCOT’, involving various forms of boarded furniture with ’slab-ends’. As a term, WAINSCOT may have been loosely as well as precisely used (cp. definition of COFFER).
Whorl: circular ornament on medieval (and later) furniture, the enclosed carving raying from the centre of the circle, or in certain other, including geometrical, dispositions. The general sense of the term seems to approximate WHIRL. WHORL is freely used, though in doubtful or obviously inapplicable cases ROUNDEL is employable.
Worm-hole: tunnel bored in woodwork by various types of beetle, collectively and popularly called ‘the WORM’. WORM-HOLES are not per se evidence of antiquity, though they have been artificially simulated. `WORM’ is, however, a condition demanding attention to destroy infection. New WORM-HOLES usually show a light-coloured interior, whereas old ones may be discoloured. A simple, though not final, test for possible activity is to tap the suspected piece and watch fora fall of wood-dust. If the mischief is superficial, furniture may be cured by repeated applications of one of the proprietary fluids sold for this purpose; but more heavily infested articles may need expert attention. In some furniture WORM may have been extinct for centuries. When WORM-HOLES are laterally exposed to any noticeable extent, it may be inferred (a) that the wood has been recut after infestation; or (b) that the surface was formerly painted or otherwise covered with some since-vanished substance which formed a side-wall to the channel. Exposed channels occur on some FAKES, but are not per se condemnatory, though, in many cases, suspicious.
Writing-cabinet: fall-front cabinets, enclosing a system of small drawers, became prominent in the latter part of the 16th century, especially in Italy and Spain (see Bargueho), some of them serving as WRITING-CABINETS. Such cabinets were sometimes furnished with stands, though others were standless, placed on top of a table or chest as needed. Certain of the latter were supplied with stands at a later period.
Such pieces are ancestral to the fall-front SCRLTToIRE, SECRETARY, ESCRITOIRE (from Fr. Secritaire) of later times, the slope-front variety being at least in part a development
of the WRITING-DESK.

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